Background
The climate and the ecology of Kurdistan have changed. The global warming is pushing the Sahel belt northward in Spain, southern Italy, and Greece as well as in the Middle East generally and maybe Kurdistan specially. The historians telling about the huge forest covering a belt from Turkey to the ridges of the Himalayas are long gone as well as the forests of their songs and poems. Today only a few percent of the Kurdish soil is covered by forests, mainly in the northern parts of the Iraqi Kurdistan. Only in some pockets of this area is the natural forest still able to reproduce and flourish. In others the mature trees survive while the seedlings don’t. This forest is not able to regenerate itself; it’s especially evident in the outskirts of the Barzan region.
Several factors can be added that have accelerated the transition to a drier regime:
The huge oil burns during the recent war probably made the relatively slow change toward a drier climate to take a huge leap forward.
The cutting of previously planted forests, also during the war may have altered the climatic patterns or at least the soil regime.
The overgrazing by ruminants as well as the compacting of the surface by hoofs and cloves has made it harder for seeds to establish as well as in has made the run-off of precipitation faster, resulting in less water left in the soil and an even more severe erosion.
The scenario with the huge flood that undermined the bridge in Bestora this winter and set villages under water would have been different with a dense biomass upstream able to store transients of water. This is a worldwide experience, described in scientific literature from Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Tanzania, Nepal and Australia. (Literature list provided on request)
In short:
The carrying capacity of the land is dwindling, leaving the rural population poor and hungry in a land full of possibilities. The trees previously covering the country are nor able to provide sustenance to cattle, not to man: The result an increased migration to the towns, first and foremost to Hewler. We have to look for other species adapted to the changed conditions and able to provide the inhabitants of the land with a living and incentive to stay.
After a first positive meeting with the major of Hewler and his assistant about the forestation of Kurdistan generally and Hewler specially, I promised to return with a plan.
Before this I have been doing extensive traveling in Kurdistan to study the status concerning soil types and depth, trees and shrubs, and during early spring; the impact of rain. I have not found data about the water table but it’s of minor importance for the moment being.
I have also consulted the experts at the arid, semi-arid and continental climate research units at the major American universities and their counterparts in New South Wales, Australia. I have also extensive contacts with three NGO:s that work with forestation projects globally. Together we have tailored an action plan that covers the alternatives we can see, this far.
Proposal
For the wealth of the nation I hereby propose a forestation plan for Hewler district, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. The objectives of this plan are:
To increase the carrying capacity of the land for both man and animal by introduction of new species and new techniques of agroforestry. Thereby making it possible for the people to continue living in the rural areas with an increased income and quality of life.
To reclaim degraded land and stop erosion.
To reintroduce the forests from the past, as far as possible.
Mechanism
In this proposal I have outlined the full plan. Altering the plan in either direction will of course change the quotation and will be subject to discussions.
Phaze 1
Propagation and provenience test: Comprises 60 species and varieties and more than 300.000 seeds. Duration: February 2007 – Mars 2008. This will go on every coming year with new varieties found and tested. Irrigation techniques that promote a deep root system as well as different planting methods will be tested and evaluated. But first and foremost is the survival under the extremes of the Kurdish climate tested: frost tenderness and drought hardiness.
(Stage 3) Establishment of a Rural Development Center (RDC) with staff and nursery. Duration: May 2007 – December 2008. The objective of this center is the promotion of the economy in the rural areas in such away that it enables people to stay in their villages instead of migrating to Hewler and a sure poverty.
Education of staff at the RDC in agroforestry techniques. Duration: 1 day / week (except for the busy seasons) June 2007 – June 2008.
Planting a genetic park of elite plants by the Nursery. September 2007 –
Start a close cooperation with similar units worldwide.
Build a mathematical model for the most effective patterns of plant distribution.
Plant an educational park within an ordinary park in Hewler in which the different species are described and their benefits, displaying how they can be used.
Phaze 2
Train staff in the ordinary nurseries in propagation of Tree Legumes. Duration: September 2007.
Send 1.000.000 seeds of selected varieties to the nurseries for propagation. Duration: February 2008 – April 2008.
Employ and train extra staff for planting. Duration: April 2008.
Develop logistics at the nurseries that enables extensive planting during a short period: Duration January 2008 – March 2008. (The tree week: During this week, the children supported by the military with logistics plant as many trees as they can. They do the country a favor and gain environmental awareness. This is just an example of the possibilities.)
Develop a system of plant protection. Duration: In effect March 2007 – March 2010.
Inoculation test with Kurdish acorns (like Q. libani) and strains of truffle mycelium with high water absorbing capacity. Duration: April 2007 – September 2008. This might make reintroduction of oak possible and might give the rural population a stable income by collecting spring truffles.
Phaze 3
Send 2.000.000 seeds of selected varieties to the nurseries for propagation. Duration: February 2009 – April 2009.
Establish demonstration farms all over the Hewler region using different agroforestry techniques. Duration: May 2009 – May 2010.
Employ and educate agroforestry informers at the demonstration farms. Duration: March 2008 – May 2010.
Support the establishments of modern forest industry like saw mills, fiber board plant and wood furniture. Duration 2009 –
Establish an investment fund (the Rural Development Fund) from which initiatives in the rural area can apply for micro loans.
Make it to a standing paragraph in every business agreement that companies establishing in Hewler must plant a number of trees according to size of agreement – or contribute to the Rural Development Fund with a sum equal.
Wednesday, November 22, 2006
Facts and figures
- 1.9% of Iraq's land area, or about 822,000 hectares (3,174 square miles / 2,031,206 acres / 8,220 square kilometers [km]) is covered with forest according to FAO figures from 2005.
- FAO estimates that around 0.0% of Iraq's forest cover consists of "primary forest" which is relatively intact.
- About 80% Iraq's forest is classified as "protected" while about 20% is "conserved" according to FAO.
- An insignificant percentage Iraq's forests are classified as "production forest."
- Between 2000-2005, Iraq gained about 4,000 ha of forest. Iraq's 2000-2005 total reforestation rate was about 0.1% per year meaning it gained an average of 1,000 ha of forest annually.
- Iraq's total reforestation rate from 1990-2000 was 1,000 ha or 0.2% per year.
- The 2000-2005 true deforestation rate in Iraq, defined as the loss of primary forest, is defined as the loss of primary forest, is not available from FAO data.
Land Degradation
Definitions of Land Degradation
A common definition of desertification is as land degradation in the drylands (" 'Desertification' means land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas."), yet the two terms are often used as if they are distinct (e.g., "Land degradation and desertification in desert margins" by Reich et al. 2000). The CCD also defines "land" by its primary productivity service (" 'land' means the terrestrial bioproductive system.") and "land degradation" as an implicit loss of provision of this service (" 'land degradation' means reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity .'). The definition of biological productivity and economic benefit depends on users' priorities - transforming woodland to cropland may decrease biological productivity, degrade the economic benefit of firewood production but increase the economic benefit of food production. With respect to the mechanisms of land degradation - changes in the properties of the land (soil, water, vegetation) do not correspond linearly to changes in productivity. Loss of productivity can also be attributed to non human-induced factors such as rainfall variability and human factors such as low labor input. Thus, a range of interacting variables that affect productivity should be addressed in order to assess objectively and unambiguously land degradation.Commonly considered degradation processes are vegetation degradation, water and wind erosion, salinization, soil compaction and crusting, and soil nutrient depletion. Pollution, acidification, alkalization, and water logging are often important locally (Oldeman, 1994; Lal, 2001; Dregne, 2002). Field experiments, field measurements, field observations, remote sensing, and computer modeling are carried out to study these processes. The higher the aggregation level in each of these study approaches, the more problematic each of the methods becomes, either because of upscaling issues or because of questionable extrapolations and generalizations.
Causes, Drivers and Types of Land Degradation
Desertification is caused by a combination of factors that change over time and vary by location. These include indirect factors such as population pressure, socioeconomic and policy factors, and international trade as well as direct factors such as land use patterns and practices and climate-related processes. Desertification is taking place due to indirect factors driving unsustainable use of scarce natural resources by local land users. This situation may be further exacerbated by global climate change. Desertification is considered to be the result of management approaches adopted by land users, who are unable to respond adequately to indirect factors like population pressure and globalization and who increase the pressure on the land in unsustainable ways. This leads to decreased land productivity and a downward spiral of worsening degradation and poverty. Where conditions permit, dryland populations can avoid degradation by improving their agricultural practices and enhancing pastoral mobility in a sustainable way. On the whole, the interaction between climatic factors and human responses can create a range of different outcomes. To counter the problems effectively, it is important-but difficult-to distinguish between those resulting from the natural conditions of dryland ecosystems and those caused by unsustainable management practices as well as broader economic and policy factors.
Impacts of Land Degradation
Desertification has environmental impacts at the global and regional scale. Affected areas may sometimes be located thousands of kilometers away from the desertified areas. Desertification-related processes such as reduction of vegetation cover, for instance, increase the formation of aerosols and dust. These, in turn, affect cloud formation and rainfall patterns, the global carbon cycle, and plant and animal biodiversity. For example, visibility in Beijing is often adversely affected by dust storms originating in the Gobi Desert in springtime. Large dust storms emanating from China affect the Korean peninsula and Japan and are observed to even have an impact on North American air quality. ...The societal and political impacts of desertification also extend to non-dryland areas. Droughts and loss of land productivity are predominant factors in movement of people from drylands to other areas, for example (medium certainty). An influx of migrants may reduce the ability of the population to use ecosystem services in a sustainable way. Such migration may exacerbate urban sprawl and by competing for scarce natural resources bring about internal and cross-boundary social, ethnic, and political strife. Desertification-induced movement of people also has the potential of adversely affecting local, regional, and even global political and economic stability, which may encourage foreign intervention.
Indicators of Land Degradation
Desertification is the consequence of a set of important degradation processes in the Mediterranean environments, especially in semi-arid and arid regions, where water is the main limiting factor of land use performance on ecosystems. Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) to desertification around the Mediterranean region exhibit different sensitivity to desertification for various reasons. For example there are areas presenting high sensitivity to low rainfall and extreme events due to low vegetation cover, low resistance of vegetation to drought, steep slopes, highly erodible parent materials, etc. High sensitivity can be also related to the type of land use for the cases that it promotes desertification in climatically and topographically marginal areas. For example cereals cultivated in hilly areas with soils formed on marl present a serious threat for desertification. Furthermore, there are areas which are sensitive to desertification for special reasons, such as fire risk, which is likely to generate runoff and erosion problems for some years; rambla and flood plain environments, where fluctuating phreatic levels may show salinization and toxicity problems; and exotic tree plantations, where poor ground cover and autotoxicity may lead to higher runoff and sediment yields. The various types of ESAs to desertification can be distinguished and mapped by using certain key indicators for assessing the land capability to withstand further degradation, or the land suitability for supporting specific types of land use. The key indicators for defining ESAs to desertification, which can be used at regional or national level, can be divided into four broad categories defining the qualities of soil, climate, vegetation, and management (stressor indicators). This approach includes parameters which can be easily found in existing soil, vegetation, and climate reports.
A common definition of desertification is as land degradation in the drylands (" 'Desertification' means land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas."), yet the two terms are often used as if they are distinct (e.g., "Land degradation and desertification in desert margins" by Reich et al. 2000). The CCD also defines "land" by its primary productivity service (" 'land' means the terrestrial bioproductive system.") and "land degradation" as an implicit loss of provision of this service (" 'land degradation' means reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity .'). The definition of biological productivity and economic benefit depends on users' priorities - transforming woodland to cropland may decrease biological productivity, degrade the economic benefit of firewood production but increase the economic benefit of food production. With respect to the mechanisms of land degradation - changes in the properties of the land (soil, water, vegetation) do not correspond linearly to changes in productivity. Loss of productivity can also be attributed to non human-induced factors such as rainfall variability and human factors such as low labor input. Thus, a range of interacting variables that affect productivity should be addressed in order to assess objectively and unambiguously land degradation.Commonly considered degradation processes are vegetation degradation, water and wind erosion, salinization, soil compaction and crusting, and soil nutrient depletion. Pollution, acidification, alkalization, and water logging are often important locally (Oldeman, 1994; Lal, 2001; Dregne, 2002). Field experiments, field measurements, field observations, remote sensing, and computer modeling are carried out to study these processes. The higher the aggregation level in each of these study approaches, the more problematic each of the methods becomes, either because of upscaling issues or because of questionable extrapolations and generalizations.
Causes, Drivers and Types of Land Degradation
Desertification is caused by a combination of factors that change over time and vary by location. These include indirect factors such as population pressure, socioeconomic and policy factors, and international trade as well as direct factors such as land use patterns and practices and climate-related processes. Desertification is taking place due to indirect factors driving unsustainable use of scarce natural resources by local land users. This situation may be further exacerbated by global climate change. Desertification is considered to be the result of management approaches adopted by land users, who are unable to respond adequately to indirect factors like population pressure and globalization and who increase the pressure on the land in unsustainable ways. This leads to decreased land productivity and a downward spiral of worsening degradation and poverty. Where conditions permit, dryland populations can avoid degradation by improving their agricultural practices and enhancing pastoral mobility in a sustainable way. On the whole, the interaction between climatic factors and human responses can create a range of different outcomes. To counter the problems effectively, it is important-but difficult-to distinguish between those resulting from the natural conditions of dryland ecosystems and those caused by unsustainable management practices as well as broader economic and policy factors.
Impacts of Land Degradation
Desertification has environmental impacts at the global and regional scale. Affected areas may sometimes be located thousands of kilometers away from the desertified areas. Desertification-related processes such as reduction of vegetation cover, for instance, increase the formation of aerosols and dust. These, in turn, affect cloud formation and rainfall patterns, the global carbon cycle, and plant and animal biodiversity. For example, visibility in Beijing is often adversely affected by dust storms originating in the Gobi Desert in springtime. Large dust storms emanating from China affect the Korean peninsula and Japan and are observed to even have an impact on North American air quality. ...The societal and political impacts of desertification also extend to non-dryland areas. Droughts and loss of land productivity are predominant factors in movement of people from drylands to other areas, for example (medium certainty). An influx of migrants may reduce the ability of the population to use ecosystem services in a sustainable way. Such migration may exacerbate urban sprawl and by competing for scarce natural resources bring about internal and cross-boundary social, ethnic, and political strife. Desertification-induced movement of people also has the potential of adversely affecting local, regional, and even global political and economic stability, which may encourage foreign intervention.
Indicators of Land Degradation
Desertification is the consequence of a set of important degradation processes in the Mediterranean environments, especially in semi-arid and arid regions, where water is the main limiting factor of land use performance on ecosystems. Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) to desertification around the Mediterranean region exhibit different sensitivity to desertification for various reasons. For example there are areas presenting high sensitivity to low rainfall and extreme events due to low vegetation cover, low resistance of vegetation to drought, steep slopes, highly erodible parent materials, etc. High sensitivity can be also related to the type of land use for the cases that it promotes desertification in climatically and topographically marginal areas. For example cereals cultivated in hilly areas with soils formed on marl present a serious threat for desertification. Furthermore, there are areas which are sensitive to desertification for special reasons, such as fire risk, which is likely to generate runoff and erosion problems for some years; rambla and flood plain environments, where fluctuating phreatic levels may show salinization and toxicity problems; and exotic tree plantations, where poor ground cover and autotoxicity may lead to higher runoff and sediment yields. The various types of ESAs to desertification can be distinguished and mapped by using certain key indicators for assessing the land capability to withstand further degradation, or the land suitability for supporting specific types of land use. The key indicators for defining ESAs to desertification, which can be used at regional or national level, can be divided into four broad categories defining the qualities of soil, climate, vegetation, and management (stressor indicators). This approach includes parameters which can be easily found in existing soil, vegetation, and climate reports.
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